IL-4 together with IL-1β induces antitumor Th9 cell differentiation in the absence of TGF-β signaling.

IL-9-producing CD4⁺ (Th9) cells are a subset of CD4⁺ T-helper cells that are endowed with powerful antitumor capacity. Both IL-4 and TGF-β have been reported to be indispensable for Th9 cell-priming and differentiation. Here we show, by contrast, that Th9 cell development can occur in the absence of TGF-β signaling. When TGF-β was replaced by IL-1β, the combination of IL-1β and IL-4 efficiently promoted IL-9-producing T cells (Th9^{IL-4+IL-1β}). Th9^{IL-4+ IL-1β} cells are phenotypically distinct T cells compared to classic Th9 cells (Th9^{IL-4+TGF-β}) and other Th cells, and are enriched for IL-1 and NF-κB gene signatures. Inhibition of NF-κB but not TGF-β-signaling negates IL-9 production by Th9^{IL-4+IL-1β} cells. Furthermore, when compared with classic Th9^{IL-4+TGF-β} cells, Th9^{IL-4+IL-1β} cells are less exhausted, exhibit cytotoxic T effector gene signature and tumor killing function, and exert a superior antitumor response in a mouse melanoma model. Our study thus describes an alternative pathway for Th9 cell differentiation and provides a potential avenue for antitumor therapies.

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